Jainism

Jainism, one of India’s three oldest religions, has important characteristics in common with its Hindu and Buddhist counterparts. The major one is that it teaches reincarnation along with that idea’s “twin doctrine,” karma. To escape the endless wheel of deaths and rebirths, one must achieve enlightenment or liberation, a state known as moksha. This, of course, is accomplished by transcending or overcoming our egotistical passions and our attachment to the world of the senses.

In Jainism, the concept of ahimsa, harmlessness, is paramount. Some monks and nuns are given to wearing masks and sweeping the path before their moving feet, so that even the tiniest of life forms will not be injured or killed. Jains are strict vegetarians who even shun root vegetables, since eating the root will kill the plant. They appear to be among the most peaceful inhabitants of planet Earth.

History

The roots of Jainism are in the India of the 5th to 7th centuries BCE. Although the Jains do not recognize a historical founder, they revere a spiritual leader known as Mahavira (“Great Hero”), born into India’s warrior (kshatriya) class sometime around 599 BCE (or perhaps later). This Tirthankara or “ford maker” — that is, one who helps others cross a stream or river — is believed to have been the 24th and last Jain teacher of the current Kalpa or Great Age. According to tradition, at the age of 30 he gave up all his worldly goods and became an ascetic. After a dozen years of fasting and meditation, he achieved enlightenment and went on to establish a Jain community of some 50 thousand followers.

It is quickly noticeable that the many Tirthankaras mostly predate the origins of the formal religion. These sages were not considered incarnations of a god; they were ordinary humans who reached enlightenment due to their own devotion and discipline. They were great teachers, all of whom demonstrated the basic Jain philosophy while modifying it for the times in which they lived. Apparently it was Mahavira’s many thousands of followers whose practices gave rise to what is now the Jain religion.

Mahavira may have been a contemporary of the Buddha, who is generally believed to have lived from 563 to 483 BCE, although some scholars believe the Buddha flourished a century later than these dates.

Scriptures

There are myriad Jain scriptures, known as Jain Agam or Agam Sutras, originally compiled by the chief disciples of Mahavira; they comprise both religious and literary texts. The two major divisions of these works are called the Digambara and the Svetambara Siddhantas, or canons.

The Svetambara canon consists of some two dozen Angas and a dozen Sutras. The twelve Angas (“limbs”) discuss the life of monks and include many sermons on various Jain themes, while the twelve Upangas (“auxiliary limbs”) cover topics such as Jain cosmology (including treatises on astronomy and philosophy), the human soul, and karma and reincarnation. The six Chedasutras relate to the requirements for the actions of monks and nuns. The four Mulasutras, similarly, contain guidelines for the newly initiated; and the two Culikkasutras comment on and may help to interpret the Angas.

The Digambara canon seems to be the larger of the two main divisions. The two oldest texts, the Shatkhandagama and the Kasayapahuda (c. 2nd to 3rd century CE), go into quite some detail on karma. The Shatkhandagama, or “Scripture in Six Parts,” delineates the theory of karma, including “calculations and subdivisions.” Generally regarded as not for the beginner, it discusses the nature of karma and its connection to the human soul. The six parts include “divisions” of karma; perception; categories of living beings; and the intricacies and “ownership” of bondage as well as “Maha” (great or profound) bondage, presumably in regard to our being enslaved by our involvement with the material world. The Kasayapahuda, a “Treatise on Passions,” also examines our attachment to materiality. Other Digambara texts include the Anuyogas, which encompass accounts of various religious stories (such as the Ramayana and Mahabharata, as well as Jain history) in addition to treatises on right conduct, mathematics, and philosophy.

These few texts are apparently just the tip of the iceberg (Wikipedia lists 175 items), but they seem to be the most important ones.

Basic Tenets

As noted above, the goal in Jainism -- as in other Eastern religions -- is to escape from the continuous cycle of reincarnation by reaching enlightenment or moksha. We reach this state only when we have evolved to the point where we no longer generate karma. This requires us to live nonviolently and to attend to our spiritual well-being rather than focusing on the material world. For Jains, as already noted, harmlessness or ahimsa is the supreme aim and the key to freeing ourselves. It takes many, many lifetimes to reach this goal; Jains do not expect instant enlightenment, but understand that a peaceful, disciplined, and humble life will move them closer to their desired state.

Jains do not view the universe as having had a Creator or an “intelligent first cause.” Instead, the world we know has come from “two everlasting, uncreated, independent and co-existing categories. Consciousness is jiva. That which has no consciousness is ajiva.” Ajiva contains five “substances,” including dharma or motion, adharma or stillness, akasha or space, pudgala or matter, and kala or time. Within this framework, we humans must practice ahimsa toward all beings, including plants. Again, in agreement with other Eastern views (and some native religions in the West), Jainism says that whatever we do to another being we are doing to ourselves. Jainism sees the world, and the universe, with an eye toward all species and all peoples.

The three fundamental ethical principles of Jainism are sometimes referred to as “the three jewels.” These are right faith, right knowledge, and right conduct. This implies that every one of us, individually, has a responsibility toward the whole. “[T]he entire universe is the forum on one’s own conscience.”

The Jain code of conduct for monks and nuns is much more strenuous than for the laity. There are five vratas or vows in this code (for both religious communities and householders):

• non-violence in thought, word, and deed;
• to seek and speak the truth;
• to behave honestly and never to take anything by force or theft;
• to practice restraint and chastity in thought, words, and deed; and
• to practice non-acquisitiveness

These vows are laden with meaning that the average person in the 21st-century Western world might find extreme, but which many spiritual seekers understand. To wit: “Using any resource beyond one’s needs and misuse of any part of nature is considered a form of theft. Indeed, the Jaina faith goes one radical step further and declares unequivocally that waste and creating pollution are acts of violence.” Jain virtues include moderation and restraint in all areas of life, and the aim of creating wealth should be philanthropy, not personal gain. In the U.S., this attitude might be summed up by a bumper sticker from the 1970s: “Live simply, that others may simply live.” Perhaps there is hope for a modern secular culture to evolve into a more selfless one.

Additional resources

Articles and pamphlets

• Jainism by Annie Besant
• Jainism in Theosophy World
• Green Karma by Aidan Rankin