Judaism

ARTICLE UNDER CONSTRUCTION
ARTICLE UNDER CONSTRUCTION
Judaism is one of the world’s oldest religions, a monotheistic faith founded nearly 4,000 years ago in the Mideast. The book of Genesis in the Hebrew Bible recounts the relationship of Abraham and the Hebrew God, including a covenant made when Abraham was 99 years old. At that time God promised him that “you shall be the father of a multitude of nations.” (Genesis 17:1-5) This was not the first, nor would it be the last, of God’s covenants with the Jewish people. Arguably the most important one was made with the entire Jewish population through the person of Moses, who brought the Ten Commandants down from his meeting with God on Mt. Sinai. These are considered holy laws issued directly from the Divine. Other ancient prophets important to Judaism include Abraham’s son Isaac and his grandson Jacob, as well as Solomon and others.

Judaism regards its teachings as not just for Jews --- it provides guidance and a way to redemption for all of humanity. Jacob Neusner (1932-2016) was a well-known scholar of Judaism who apparently was not Jewish; his views are often controversial. Many people, however, agree with his assertion that the elements of Judaism “express a single & whole conception of the world, of the human being, of the character of humanity, and of the supernatural meaning of the Jewish people. … Judaism is a mode of creating and of interpreting the world … each and every element relates to all other elements.”

History

The history of the Jews is largely one of resilience in the face of oppression. One of the earliest stories is that of a Jewish population being enslaved in Egypt in the 13th century BCE. Eventually these people were freed by Moses and traveled with him to Mt. Sinai, where the great covenant of the Commandments was carried out. While this ancient tale is often considered mythical, some scholars believe there is both archeological and textual evidence for it.

Later events are better documented. The Jews were expelled from Spain and Portugal in the 1490s for refusing to convert to Christianity. From 1894 to 1906, the Dreyfus Affair scandalized all of France: a Jewish captain in the French Army, Alfred Dreyfus, was wrongly convicted of spying for the Germans. In 1896 new evidence pointed to another French officer, but the immediate effect was prosecution of the whistle-blowers. Eventually the actual culprit, a man named Esterhazy, was court-martialed but found innocent. Amid the continuing outcry over Dreyfus’ wrongful arrest, Esterhazy fled the country. It was 1906 before Dreyfus was cleared of charges and reinstated in the Army. The events of these years fueled a great deal of anti-Semitism in France.

The Holocaust of World War II is, of course, the greatest disaster to have ever befallen the Jewish people. Six million Jews died in the Nazi camps, a genocide that has political reverberations to this day. The State of Israel, considered the Jewish homeland, was established three years after the Holocaust ended. As we all know, there has been contentious arguing among Jews and Muslims ever since. Whether these two peoples can live in peace together remains to be seen.

Scriptures

The heart of the Jewish tradition is the Torah or Pentateuch, the first five books of the Hebrew Bible: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. Tradition has it that these were received by Moses on Mt. Sinai. The term “Torah,” however, may also refer to all of Judaism’s scriptures. In addition to the Pentateuch, these include:

• the Nevi’im, Old Testament books of the prophets (Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the Trei-Assar or twelve minor prophets);
• the Ketuvim, Writings (Psalms, Proverbs, and others); as well as
• the Talmud, commentary on the teachings of the Torah, written by various rabbis in the early centuries of the Common Era;
• the Mishnah, a written version of the Oral Law received by Moses; and
• the Midrash, a collection of writings explaining Jewish law and traditional stories.

Note that this is not an exhaustive list! Jewish writings are many and varied, in keeping with the view that Judaism is a way of life, its festivals and rituals to be incorporated into daily activities.

Judaic scripture is a gold mine of stories that help people make sense of the laws and rituals. Clive Lawton, a Jewish man from Britain, in 2009 wrote a BBC piece on “Jesus Through Jewish Eyes.” His comments on the New Testament Gospels tell us something about Jewish literature:

"The world Mark describes sounds not dissimilar from the world I know from the Talmud and the Midrash, those compendia of rabbinic debate, quoting about 1000 rabbis, spanning nearly 1000 years.

"I recognised the pleasure in argument and verbal honing, the clever use of proof texts, the camaraderie and generosity underlying disagreements, as the rabbis call them, for the sake of Heaven. I couldn't detect anything much Jesus says in the Gospel of Mark which couldn't also be found in the mouth of some rabbi --- I want to say, some other Rabbi --- in these great treasure stores of the Jewish relationship with revelation. …

"Argument and polemical exaggeration are the stuff of Jewish debate. If a teacher condemns something and says it doesn't matter in comparison to something else, you shouldn't take their comments out of the context of how they actually behaved or what they said elsewhere. They may have just been making a point. …[T]he rabbinic tradition did not suppress opinions which didn't chime with the consensus. All the variant opinions are recorded in the Talmud. Disagreeing wasn't a crime."

Studying the Torah is a primary responsibility in the Jewish tradition, and it appears that this task is often enjoyable.

Basic Tenets

While the Ten Commandments lay out the basic rules of conduct for a cohesive and cooperative community, other Jewish writings also discuss these laws at some length. Here are the basics, found in the 20th chapter of Exodus:

1) You shall have no other gods before me.

2) Do not make any graven images.

3) Do not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain.

4) Remember the Sabbath day and keep it Holy.

5) Honor your father and mother.

6) Do not kill.

7) Do not commit adultery.

8) Do not steal.

9) Do not bear false witness.

10) Do not covet what belongs to your neighbor.

There is quite a bit of Judaic literature that elaborates on and extends these concepts.

Perhaps the most important principle of Judaism is what Arthur Hertzberg calls “human dignity and potential,” what another text refers to as “inwardness.” That is, since humans were created in the image of God, we are responsible for cultivating that understanding and acting on it. This requires us to pay close attention to our thoughts and behaviors, to see ourselves in every other human being and to treat our fellow humans accordingly. There is a well-known story that a pagan asked the sage Hillel to teach him the Torah while he (the pagan) stood on one leg, and if this could be done the pagan would convert to Judaism. The great teacher replied, “What is hateful to you, do not do to your fellow human being. This is the essence, the rest is commentary. Go and learn.” (This, of course, is the Christian Golden Rule from Matthew 7:12, commonly translated as “Do unto others as you would have others do unto you.”) As one rabbi notes, “Jewish tradition is fully aware of the discrepancy between what we know is the right thing to do and is painfully aware of our failure to do it.” This is why there are so many Biblical calls to reflect on our actions and our true identity.

The Sanhedrin was the judicial system of ancient Judaism. The Great Sanhedrin oversaw all of Israel, and there were smaller religious ones in every town, as well as individual civic/political sanhedrins. Because documents pertaining to these councils tend to be “fragmentary, apparently contradictory, and often obscure,” scholars continue to research their character and functions. However, what is known of its records has been translated by various scholars. It lays out many of the basic precepts of Judaism, occasionally in rather amusing ways --- such as this verse on humility:

“Why was man created on the sixth day [after the creation of all other creatures]? So that, should he become overbearing, he can be told ‘The gnat was created before you were.’ ”

Rabbi Bemporad notes that Judaism affirms “the ethical as inseparable from the holy,” and that ethical living makes it possible to know God. “This connection is what the rabbis mean by spirituality.” Ethical living includes accepting responsibility for the consequences we reap from the choices we make. It means we “imitate God in all things,” by “acts of lovingkindness” toward our fellow humans and by respecting everyone, regardless of their age, gender, social status or the lack thereof. Since reading the Torah is one of the major requirements for those practicing Judaism, maintaining a personal library, if possible, is of major importance. One should take good care of one’s books, arranging them “in fair order” so that it is easy to find the book one wants. The various types of books should be “examined” periodically. We should not hesitate to loan a book to someone who can’t afford a library, as long as we know they can be trusted to return it.

Ambition in itself is not considered a bad thing; it is only problematic when self-centered ambition is realized at the expense of others. Most humans seem to harbor an element of competitiveness, which we must strive to use ethically. “It is the dynamic force and has great strength,” but if we are self-righteous and want to “triumph over others,” then we are not using it ethically.

Idolatry is expressly prohibited. This does not only mean worshipping statues or images. It means “having a false sense of the Holy,” or seeing sacredness in things that are in no way sacred, whether it is an object, a person, or an institution. In Judaism, worshipping nature, including celestial bodies or other natural wonders, constitutes idolatry. This is seen as betraying God. Creating an “object of divine worship,” even if you only consider it a decoration, is also forbidden.

The medieval Jewish scholar Nachmanides wrote:

“Hear, my son, your father’s instruction, and forsake not your mother’s teaching [Proverbs 1:8]. Become accustomed to speaking gently to all, at all times. Thus you will be delivered from anger … [and] there will arise in your heart the quality of humility, the best of all good things … Reverence results from humility, for humility makes you to consider always whence you came and where you are going.”

Perhaps the most important idea here is mindfulness --- that we need to always be aware of our own behavior and the well-being of those around us. Being generous and kind to our fellow humans, being of service, feeds us in ways that are somewhat mysterious and that we may not recognize immediately. This is a concept found in every true spiritual path, and Judaism reiterates it in many different ways.

Judaism Today

There are relatively few sects in Judaism, which fall within the four major groups: Orthodox, Reform, Conservative, and Reconstructionist.

Orthodox Jews are decidedly traditional, believing that, in the words of Caroline Myss, “the revealed will of God, not the value system of a particular age, is the ultimate standard of conduct.” Orthodox practices around food and clothing are time-honored customs, and women’s roles are also not modern. Myss notes that while the Hasidic sect is a “significant segment” of Orthodox Judaism, there are other Orthodox sects as well.

Reform Judaism dates from 1810, when a German businessman and philanthropist named Israel Jacobson founded the first Reform temple. Having previously established an egalitarian boarding school attended by both Jewish and Christian children, Herr Jacobson noted that “On all sides enlightenment opens up new areas for religious development.” The Reform movement embraces the historic values of an ethical life based on “a living Covenant with God” and the recognition that all of creation is holy, while allowing Jews much more leeway in terms of traditional practices. The Torah literature is presented in more modern terms, and there is an emphasis on inclusion of all people, regardless of race or ethnicity, gender identification, abilities or disabilities --- or any further label for “othering” those who are different from us. This is sometimes known as “audacious hospitality.”

According to Caroline Myss, the Conservative movement, called “Historical Judaism” in its beginnings around the middle of the 19th century, was “a response to the perceived excesses” of the Reformists.

Judaism and Theosophy

Jews in the Theosophical Movement

The number of Jews who were also Theosophists has never been great, but they have had a substantial influence, especially in the study of Kabbalah. Modern researchers have been studying the impact of Jewish Theosophists in England, India, The Netherlands, the United States, Italy, Poland, Morocco, Shanghai, Hong Kong, and other countries.

Iraqi and Indian Jews

Jewish communities in Basra and Baghdad formed centers of Theosophical activity in Iraq. Some of these families migrated to India, forming new communities around Bombay (now Mumbai) and other cities. There was an overlap of interest in Theosophy with Freemasonry, as is common elsewhere, along with a special interest in Kabbalah. After World War II, most of these Jews moved from India to the new country of Israel, where a new section of the Theosophical Society formed in 1954.

In 1897, one of the Iraqi-Indian Theosophists, Abraham David Ezekiel, formed his own publishing house in Pune. He published a section of the Zohar, called the Idra Zuta, in Jewish Arabic, which was Arabic written in Hebrew script. His introduction to the text mentioned the Theosophical Society:

Ezekiel mentioned the society (which he referred to in Arabic as “the Sufi Society in America”!), several times, and affirmed that his interest in Kabbalah was stimulated by the importance it had in the teachings of the Society.

Some prominent Jewish Theosophists

• David E. De Lara was a scholar who was present at the founding of the Theosophical Society in 1875.

• Paul Brunton, the literary name of English Theosophist Raphael Hurst (1898-1981), became a follower of Sri Ramana Maharshi, and published many books'.

• Leonard Bosman (1879-1940) was president of the Hackney Lodge in London, and is notable for his many books and articles.

• Friedrich Eckstein (1861-1939) was a friend of Sigmund Freud. He founded a Theosophical lodge in Vienna, and introduced Rudolf Steiner to Theosophy.

• Albert Schwarz served as treasurer of the Theosophical Society in Adyar for many years. He was a skilled violinist.

• S. S. Cohen was an Iraqi-Indian who lived at the Brahmavidya Ashrama in Adyar, Madras, India. He was a founder of the Association of Hebrew Theosophists in Adyar, and later became a follower of Sri Ramana Maharshi and author of several books.

• Bozena Brydlova (1886-1969), also known as Mrs. William B. Rubin, was an American of Czech descent who was a linguist and Talmud scholar. She wrote several books and pamphlets, plus articles for The Jewish Theosophist.

• Elias Gewurz (1875-1947)), born in Cracow, Poland, was an American Theosophist known for The Hidden Treasures of the Ancient Qabalah and other books.

• Alexander Horne was an English Theosophist and author, known for such books as Theosophy and the Fourth Dimension (1928) and An Introduction to Esoteric Judaism.

• Henry C. Samuels of Seattle, Washington, was president of the American branch of the Association of Hebrew Theosophists.

Additional resources

Articles

• Reincarnation in Judaism and the Bible by W. Q. Judge
• Judaism in Theosophy World
• Enoch, Books of in Theosophy World

Books

• Samuel, Sigal. Searching for My Indian Jewish Family, From Kabbalah to Bollywood posted in Forward.com on April 27, 2015. This is a very personal account of the author’s family of Iraqi-Indian Jews.